Oscar Niemeyer Design Philosophy

Oscar Niemeyer Design Philosophy Being born as the son of Brazils Federal Prime Minister, Oscar Niemeyer was living in a Portuguese colonial style house with beautiful tropical setting: a wide carriageway, neatly lined with tropical trees, that curves along the broad seawall looking out to the dome of Pao de Acuacar guarding the bays mouth; lawn designed as formal gardens Niemeyer obsessed over the landscape of his motherland Brazil. No matter how different his house designs vary through time, the element of landscape is always strong and evident. This essay focused on Niemeyers house designs. Being an icon of modern architecture, Niemeyer pushed the limit of reinforced concrete and revealed the expressive charm of this artificial material. The contemporary architecture was monotony. Niemeyer wanted to challenge it. Niemeyer is well-known mainly because of his design for some of the most dominant governmental buildings in Brasilia, Brazil. As one of the early pioneers of modern architecture, Niemeyer opened up a unique approach to contemporary architecture using bold free-form curves in design. Some of his house projects were equally powerful in terms of his dramatic application of free-form. But other projects indicate more thoughts in Brazils colonial background and his own formal exploration throughout his career. Niemeyer did a series of house projects with a huge time span from 1936 until now. Among the dozens of house projects, there are extremely luxury houses he designed for wealthiest Brazilians, there area also some house he designed for middle-class friends and family. Niemeyer also designed four houses for himself. One house, Casa das Canoas, was his most published and well-known work. Four houses designed in year 1942, 1949, 1953 and 1960 had varies characters and different concepts. As Niemeyers other house design sometimes have to fulfill his clients requirements, his own house designs seems to be trademarks of his career, evolving through different phases. The first house he designed for himself is located on a sloping site in Lagoa, Rio de Janeiro. Graduated from National Fine Arts School in 1934, Niemeyer was deeply influenced by Le Corbusiers visit to Brazil in 1929. He joined Costas office in 1935, and from 1936-1942, he was working mainly on the Ministry of Education and health Building, on which, Le Corbusier was invited as project consultant. During this period, influence from the modern master was obvious and they got clearly reflected in Niemeyers first house. The three story house was zoned with clear rationality. The main living room and bedrooms are clearly separated from the service area. A set of scissors ramp is just identical as the one appeared in Le Corbusiers Villa Savoye in terms of its function as the only connection between different floors. The rectilinear upper floors sit on columns on the ground floor, with curvilinear walls direct the flow from entrance to garage and later towards the ramp. Horizontal openings on the facade give a clear indication of free elevation. However, the house is not a simple duplication of Le Corbusiers work. Niemeyer started to explore forms and material in the context of Rio, which is a humid tropical Brazilian city. A single direction slanted rooftop deals with the massive rain water during the monsoon season. A veranda on the second floor fully opens to the lake view. The material he used for the elevation is also unique. Different from his later larger public buildings which mainly deals with reinforced concrete, brick and wood was applied as elevation infill. On the top floor, the wall is composed with wood trims originally painted in blue. Wooden louvered panels were added to cover the veranda. Wood was also widely used as the material for interior finishes as well. The symbol of house as a machine, ramp, in Villa Savoye was no longer represented in cold metal frames and concrete finish. It was covered in wooden panels on the side and a wooden frame. On the ground floor, bushes were planted from the irregular sit e boundary towards the hose edge, defined by a hard pavement following the outline of the elevated second floor. In this project, although marks from Le Corbusier are clear through the use of free plan and clear zoning in a house project. Niemeyers awareness of context and site was already obvious. This prototype of dwelling on top of the landscape evolved and became one of the most frequently used prototypes in his later house designs. In 1949, Niemeyer designed another house in Mendes, RJ. The house was built and later demolished. The house has a very dominant feature which was the slanting screens shelter the porches for living room and bedrooms. Different from his first house for himself, this house was located on a flat piece of land with the trees surrounding it and a stream runs in front of it. The setting is purely natural, not urban. The difference in the context led to a very different design solution. The single floor house is organized in a rectilinear order with all the rooms facing the screen and indoor garden in between. Here, a hint can be found between his modernist approach and traditional colonial architecture. The old colonial porch was transformed into a screened indoor garden, blending the artificial indoor and purer nature outside. This became a prototype which the landscape and the artificial indoor environment was articulated on the same level through a buffer garden. In 1953, Niemeyer designed his most published house, Casa das Canoas. The design was open to the world and shocked the audience with its curvilinear roof. Just before the CIAM meet for the first time in Brazil in 1954, the house was finished. Niemeyer faced some of the most dominant figure in modern architecture with their critics on the house. Walter Gropius and Mies van de Rohe were both attracted to its beauty but pointed out the uniqueness of its geometry became he limit that it can not be multipliable. Faithful to his ideology of mixed ancestry and Antropofagist hybridization, Niemeyer proceeded to infect the classical pavilion with the organic, spontaneous architecture of the morros, mixing Western achievements in the field of domestic architecture with tropical exuberance and lessons from Brazils colonial past and popular present. Case das Canoas is one example of Niemeyers treatment of continuity between the interior and exterior. Curve and landscape became the media that he utilized to achieve it. With the irregular curvilinear roof lines, the nature surrounding the house became closer and farther, varies according to the geometry. A large piece of rock placed right at the edge of the glass wall, penetrating the transparent faà §ade and made it even less dominant. The warm wood finish of the interior partition wall conter-balance the rigidity brought by the steel frame of the glass faà §ade. The white ceiling and black floor becomes the frame of the this transition between na ture and artificial. The exploration of the form continued and became more vigorous when he designed an unbuilt house in Tel Aviv, Edmond de Rothschild House. This time with the desert becomes the setting, the free-form geometry was reverted from edge of the house to its inside. A free-form garden is enclosed by a rectilinear volume. Just at the time when Niemeyers free-form house design became a signature image. In 1960, he designed his house in Brasilia in a totally traditional colonial style. It creates a very strong contrast between the ideology of Brazils independence and its colonial historic roots. On the one hand, with the huge governmental projects, Niemeyer was creating the most powerful formal language, trying to declare to the world that Brasilia represents Brazils new future. On the other hand, he showed his respect very thoroughly to the colonial style, honest and modest. The houses feature a covered porch with red-tiled gable roof, whitewhased walls and regularly spaced windows. More houses will be discussed following the category of the four houses Niemeyer designed for himself. These houses includes: Edmundo Cavanelas House Allvorada Palace Carmen Baldo House Burton Tremaine House Weekend house for Juscelino Kubitschek Cavalcanti house Overlaid with the complexities of Brazils history and stratified society, these scenes evoke contradictions that Niemeyers designs have always balanced: natural shapes created by artificial technology, structural logic and ecstatic emotions, simple forms and complex purposes. Niemeyers house design showed his critical thinking and evolving career, just as strong as his public buildings. His public building may be restricted to their formal strength as a responsibility to speak for the nation. However, in his house design, there are clear trademarks of his weighing of traditional vernacular concept and modern formal exploration. Curves in Niemeyers house projects are more utilized as a mean to explore the relationship between nature and artificial, building and landscape, indoor and outdoor etc.

Washington Square :: Essays Papers

Washington Square I’m depressed. Well, how could I not be? I just finished reading Washington Square. I’m happy it’s over, but I’m not happy I finished it. No, that doesn’t make sense does it? Lets just say, I had a feeling how it was going to end up; I just hoped that I would be wrong. Unfortunately the one time I didn’t want to be right I was. Isn’t that the way it always works? I guess so. Catherine, dear plain old, Catherine. Poor girl, father thinks she’s plain, she thinks she’s plain, her aunt thinks she’s plain, even the man who she thinks loves her thinks she’s plain. Although James erases this thought in the beginning of the book I still believe it, â€Å"plain† equals â€Å"ugly†. I feel so bad for her but I guess you had to have what happened to her happen, or else we wouldn’t have such a depressing story. I tell you though, I’m glad my daddy isn’t rich or I would swear off guys as well. I felt so horrible when I knew before her what Morris was like. Which brings me to Morris Townsend. He’s a rat, I smelt a rat from the beginning but I figured it was just because for me guys for the most part are always rats. But of course he was after her money, she was â€Å"plain† and her father was â€Å"rich† no her father wasn’t â€Å"rich†. By god he was rich. So Catherine’s got a big dowry, lots of money, but she’s â€Å"plain†. Oh, well the money will compensate. This shows you the kind of man he is. Well at least it erases the theory that women are gold diggers. James makes the reader dislike Catherine’s father. He makes him seem like an insensitive uncaring prick, but I really don’t think he is. Yes I know parents are supposed to think that their child is the most beautiful thing in the world but hey, that theory’s over rated. It’s not that he didn’t love his daughter; he just knew the truth. He was realistic about the entire idea of this strikingly handsome man falling head over heals in love with his daughter who isn’t the greatest looking chick in the world. Something doesn’t quite fit.

Procter & Gamble: A Company with Global Operations

Procter & Gamble (P&G) is a leading manufacturer of personal and home care products. P&G is an international company that operates in 40 different countries. This paper will examine the environmental factors that affect how effective P&G’s global marketing efforts are. These factors known as environmental forces include social and economic forces, as well as technological, regulatory, and competitive forces.Any business operating internationally is impacted by these environmental factors which affect how the company will market its product. Understanding how these forces impact its operations will help P&G understand the interworkings of the economy both globally and domestically and the trends that currently impact its marketing efforts, which will help P&G, create and successfully implement its marketing plan. Operating Globally:In this day and age, globalization has allowed companies to operate internationally. According to Panayotou (2000), â€Å"Globalization is an on-go ing process of global integration that encompasses economic integration through trade, political interaction, information technology, and culture. Globalization brings people, culture, and information together. Globalization has helped P&G operate globally because it lowers trade barriers and increases the dependence between countries for goods and services, which means there is a bigger market for the goods that companies like P&G offers.Globalization came about as countries saw that other countries could produce products better and cheaper than another country could (comparative advantage), so countries began producing what they had an advantage in and selling it to other countries. This trading of products became an accepted practice and eventually spurred economic growth. This caused countries and  businesses to begin operating in the global market because it allowed companies to tap into this greater demand and new market for goods and services, which would expand their custo mer base and profit potential. Procter & Gamble: The Importance of Demographics & Physical InfrastructureP&G knows that when operating globally the company needs to market its product, and this means you have to have a clear understanding of the market of people that will be using the product. This means understanding the people and their different cultures. Every country has a different culture. Culture tells a story about where people come from, who they are, and what is socially acceptable. Culture affects the way people perceive the world around them, and this means it will affect the way products should be marketed. A significant part of our culture is our background, characteristics, and demographics.Demographics provide vital information about a country’s people. Information about a country's demographics help P&G to determine the right people to market its products to and how to appeal to them in its marketing plan. P&G manufacturers and sells its products world-wide including nations outside North America, Western Europe, Japan and Korea where there is a growing demand for its products. These countries represent places with high populations of people who are aging and take care of themselves, which means they need basic household items which P&G manufacturers such as detergents and grooming products.P&G is well- positioned in the industry segments and markets in which it operates. P&G’s success is a result of its ability to adapt its marketing mix to the standards and culture of the country in which it operates. It does this by having a good understanding of the country’s demographics and its physical infrastructure which help facilitate the development and operations of its companies. A countries physical infrastructure helps marketers determine how products will go from the manufacturer, to retailers, to the customer. Going Global: The Effect of Trade Practices and AgreementsTrade is an integral part of any country’s grow th and stability. Trade is fostered by global economic interdependence and gives counties access to a  wider array of products and services. Over the past decade trade has become global; trade negotiations have expanded to include more countries and are now regulated by international agreements and the World Trade Organization (Boundless, 2013). Trade has created a global economic interdependency. Global economic interdependence illustrates the ideal that no country is completely self-sufficient. â€Å"There is a need for trade among nations for goods and services as well as the resources needed to survive and grow in the global economy† (Nebraska Department of Education, 2013, para1).This means that decisions made in one country will directly affect what happens in another country making countries more susceptible to economic problems. Although, trade increases a country’s wealth trade also leads to inequality which is why countries have trade agreements. Trade agre ements are negotiated by each nation who has their own interests’ in-mind, which means some level of protectionism to protect industries that are essential to that nation (Boundless, 2013). Costs of Operating Globally: Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977Any company with international operations is susceptible to a number of risks. These risks include complying with U.S. laws affecting operations outside of the United States, such as the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act. The Foreign Corruption Act was developed to eliminate the potential of bribery to foreign officials, thwart money laundering, and reduce corruption and restore confidence in the business system.When operating internationally, companies must abide by several laws and legislation on the local, national, and international level. This is because the company conducts business with other nations and this means abiding by the laws, rules and customs which govern the business transaction between the two nations. Furthe rmore, companies must also take into account that political systems directly influence international relations between nations.This is because each country has it own laws and acceptable business practices. As well as its own political system that determines what a company can do when trying to conduct business in that country. When conducting business with different countries it is important to be aware of its political systems as it determines where products can be marketed and  what laws must be abided by (Chavis, 2013).TechnologyTechnology changes the way companies operate and conduct business. Technology allows companies with international operations to achieve success by allowing them to be innovative. Technology helps companies improve its equipment and manufacturing processes and anticipating consumer acceptance. On a global perspective, technology allows companies to go outside the traditional confines of selling a product and enables them to sell their products virtually anywhere. Technology has influenced every aspect of business from increasing efficiency to providing access to information and changing how companies communicate with their customers. Social Responsibility, Ethics, & Legal Obligations:To be profitable companies must understand that there is more to staying in business than earning a hefty amount of money. Companies must also consider the social implications of their operations. This is especially important for companies operating in the global market because a damaging reputation can impact its sales domestically and internationally. Any company looking to stay in business must abide by the laws and legislation of the company in which it is operating. For example, P&G is subject to tax regulations in the United States and multiple foreign jurisdictions, and it is their responsibility to be aware of any changes in the laws and regulations of these countries.In business, social responsibility and ethics go hand in hand. A company tha t seeks to have a positive impact on society is usually a company that seeks to operate responsibly and in doing so the company upholds the highest moral and ethical standards. Ethics help ensure that companies use good business practices in its operations and help companies fulfill its social responsibility to help improve the lives of its people.For P&G social responsibility and ethics drive the company. P&G is in the business of â€Å"providing products and services of superior quality and value that improve the lives of the world’s consumers, now and for generations to come† (P&G, 2013, para.2). P&G believes that by being socially responsible, and ethical its â€Å"consumers will reward P&G with leadership sales, profit and value  creation, allowing our people, our shareholders, and the communities in which we live and work to prosper† (P&G, 2013). ConclusionInternational companies understand that success is not just creating an appealing marketing campaig n. To be successful companies have to plan extensively and have a good understanding of the global market. To market a product internationally companies must examine and plan for the environmental factors that influence how effective their global marketing efforts are. In doing so, the company will effectively reach its new market of customers and create a unique position in the minds of its customer which creates brand loyalty, generates sales, and increase profit potential.

Effects of Fuel Prices

Effects of Fuel Prices Introduction Fuel is pivotal in the successful running of any business and especially in the transport industry like the airline industry, which is involved in massive transporting activities. There is no reasonable doubt therefore that high fuel costs have an adverse impact on the running of any organisation.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Effects of Fuel Prices specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Fuel prices have become a challenge in the recent past because they are usually increasing at a speedy and sudden rate. Most often, much focus is placed on the effect of fuel prices on the lives of people. In such a case, people are advised on unnecessary spending by cutting down on fuel costs. Less attention however is placed on the effect of the high fuel prices on organisations, which cannot run without fuel since it facilitates almost all of the operations in any organisation. The airline industry precisely is o verly reliant on fuel and as a result is deemed to be most affected by the high fuel prices. One such airline is the Dnata Company, whose survival is hanging on a thin thread given its current financial crisis. It is very ironical that the United Arab Emirates is the fourth region across Arab high in oil production yet is ranked the third country with high oil prices. The effects of high fuel prices have crippled the prognoses of the Dnata Company as at now attributed to high operational costs in comparison to revenues obtained. Revenues obtained are almost equivalent to the fuel costs. Notwithstanding the high fuel prices, Dnata has managed to survive in business until this far even though many similar companies have collapsed along the way. It is therefore believed that it will still survive this financial ordeal that it is currently experiencing.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Most of the times when fuel prices are high, the prices imposed on customers escalate as well. However, it is interesting to note that Dnata is still experiencing financial crisis. Apparently, it seems that increasing service prices would not be an ideal remedy due to the triple whammy effect of the high fuel prices. Not only do high fuel prices slow a country’s economic growth and place financial strain on companies, they rob consumers their purchasing power. As a result, business is slow because clients cannot spend much. The situation becomes much worse if the prices are increased. It is intriguing to know that in all these years Dnata has survived in the industry despite the unstable oil prices in UAE. This study will therefore seek to investigate the past performance of Dnata in spite of rapidly increasing fuel prices and compare this past trend with the current situation. Background Dnata is ranked the fourth largest airline company globally th at provides a range of services as shown below. The company handles an estimate of 250 airlines and is operational in 39 countries. It is the number one largest company in as far as travel-management services are concerned. Dnata fulfils the following obligations: catering, provision of cargo, ground handling, sale of air tickets as an agent of other airlines, and information technology services. Dnata was founded in 1959 and merely begun as a small ground handling shop with only two staff members compared with the current 20,000 employees in five continents. It has gradually grown through the years.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Effects of Fuel Prices specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It has been overcoming the hurdles that emerge along the way until the very recent financial crisis, which has been linked to escalating fuel prices. It later expanded in 1970 when it started selling airline tickets. The car go division was formed in 1973 and experienced a boom in 1979. Starting this time, the cargo enjoyed an annual growth of more than 50%. The ticketing division was equally booming such that a new airline centre was opened in 1981 and during this time, it became the largest ticketing operation. A decade later, the 150,000 meter squared Dubai Cargo operation was opened and another decade later (2002), agreements with different carriers were designed and effected. After five years, a joint venture between Toll Holdings and Toll Dnata Airport Services based in Australia was established. This gave Dnata Company an upper lead because this joint venture became the sole ground handling company in Australia. As a company that embraces technology for efficiency, a community-based B2B B2C portal was launched in 2008 to facilitate transactions and thereby serve a wider clientele. Later on in the same year, Dnata opened the DXB terminal 3 to allow the airline to handle baggage for 17,000 passeng ers at a given point in time. Other than the historic transformation into the largest airline company, Dnata Company was able to acquire other small companies. In the year 2009, Dnata acquired Plane Handling Limited, a company that offered ground and cargo handling services at London Heathrow Airport and Manchester Airport respectively. In 2010, the Alpha Flight Group Limited was acquired. The company operated in 11 countries and was a leading in-flight catering company across the globe. It is therefore obvious that Dnata has steadily grown in the past without difficultly.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This makes this study even more enthralling as one tries to figure out what could have gone wrong because it seems that the issue of fuel prices in UAE has been prevalent for a long time due to importation of gasoline. It is evident that Dnata Company has had a solid and professional administrative unit that has steered the success of Dnata. This is attributed to the fact that it has been able to soar up in the past regardless of the many challenges that forced other similar companies to face out. In addition, as an organisation that is entirely driven by quality, it seeks to ensure that each area is continually evolving to meet the changing demands and preferences of clients. As a company that has various transport and carrier responsibilities, it is likely to consume a lot of fuel in a day. Hence, the unstable oil prices are a great injustice to the company, which is very fundamental to the economy of UAE and in the airline industry in general. During the period 2011 and 2012, Dna ta was documented as enjoying its peak in profits despite increasing operation costs. Worth noting is that the profit derived during this time was obtained from in-flight catering, airport operations and Dnata cargo handling in that order. The fact that ground handling is not documented could mean that fuel prices compared to revenue could have resulted in a negative balance. However, all this can be confirmed by carrying out this study that will examine the different departments and each department’s performance all along. It is only then that an association between fuel prices and the financial crisis being experienced by Dnata will be scientifically proven. Problem Statement The sole purpose of any organisation is to make profit. Dnata is a private airline company and therefore its objectives could not be far-fetched from this. The company has done what is within its jurisdiction in as far as provision of quality services to its clients is concerned. This is supported by t he fact that Dnata adopts latest technology that is efficient and effective. Maintaining a stable clientele base is very important for any business to thrive hence the reason why Dnata offers quality services to meet the needs of its customers. In the recent past however, the looming fuel prices have not favoured the company at all. Dnata company is currently in a financial crisis with its revenue barely enough to meet its operational costs. It is very enthralling to investigate the effects of the high fuel prices on this company that has continued to survive in the past.

How To Make Colorful Soap Bubbles

How To Make Colorful Soap Bubbles Were you one of those kids who tried to add food coloring to ordinary bubble solution to make colored bubbles? Food coloring wont give you bright bubbles, and even if it did, they would cause stains. Heres a recipe for pink or blue colored bubbles, based on disappearing ink, so the bubbles wont stain surfaces when they land. Safety First Please dont drink the bubble solution! Unused bubble solution may be stored for later in a sealed container or disposed of by pouring it down the drain.These are bubbles intended for blowing bubbles, not for bathing.Sodium hydroxide is a  strong base. Avoid direct contact with this ingredient. If you do get some on your hands, rinse them immediately with water. Ingredients Liquid dishwashing detergent  (or another detergent)Water or commercial bubble solutionSodium hydroxidePhenolphthaleinThymolphthaleinClub soda (optional) Heres How If you are making your own bubble solution, mix the detergent and water.Add the sodium hydroxide and indicator to the bubble solution. You want enough indicator so that the bubbles will be deeply colored. For each liter of bubble solution (4 cups), this is about 1-1/2 to 2 teaspoons of phenolphthalein (red) or thymolphthalein (blue).Add sodium hydroxide until you get the indicator to change from colorless to colored (about half a teaspoon should do the trick). A little more sodium hydroxide will result in a bubble that keeps its color longer. If you add too much, the color of the bubble wont disappear when exposed to air or rubbed, though you can still react it with club soda.You may find it necessary to dissolve the indicator in a small amount of alcohol before mixing it with the bubble solution. You can use pre-made indicator solution, adding the sodium hydroxide to the indicator rather than diluting with water.Youve essentially made disappearing ink bubbles. When the bubble lands, you can make the color vanish by either rubbing the spot (reacting the liquid with air) or by adding a little club soda. Fun! If you have disappearing ink, you could mix it with bubble solution to make disappearing ink bubbles.

I am in favor of the law should prevent people living near the forest Essay

I am in favor of the law should prevent people living near the forest area - Essay Example Due to this they end up being attacked and killed by these animals. For example during the period of 1993 a ten year old girl was attacked by a cougar while she and her family were camping in the region of Cuyamaca Rancho State Park (Cougarinfo.org 1). Another reason for imposing a ban on people living near forest area is that a huge number of forest fire incidents have been caused by human beings. Various human activities such as burning wood and creating fire to cook food can cause forest fires. According to Arbor Day Foundation more than eighty three percentage of the forest fires that took place in the era of 2006 were caused by human activities (Arborday.org 1). A third reason for imposing a ban on people residing near forests is that human beings are destroying the ecological system. When human beings shift to areas that are near forests, they tend to develop their houses through the wood that is obtained from the forests. Due to this a huge number of trees are cut down and these trees are home to various animals who cannot survive without these trees and plants. It is very essential that a ban is levied on the mobility of individuals from metropolitan areas to forest regions because individuals cannot protect themselves against the threat of wild animals. Furthermore they are one of the major causes of forest fires and they even disturb the ecological system due to their

Koran Issues in Contemporary Middle Eastern History Essay

Koran Issues in Contemporary Middle Eastern History - Essay Example The followers of Judaism and Christianity viz. Jews and Christians are referred to in Islam as the ‘people of the book’ because they too were sent messengers with scriptures. Differences between the three lie mainly in which prophets are recognized or not, the accepted books, interpretations of faith and teachings and so on. The Jews and Arabs historically are cousins set apart by the brothers Ishac (Isac) (A.S.) and Ismail (Ishmail) (A.S.) respectively, both descendents of prophet Ibrahim (A.S.). Between Christianity and Islam the notable differences come down to the belief in the oneness of Allah versus the doctrine of trinity; that Jesus was a prophet like other prophets (Islamic view) or the son of God (orthodox Christian view), and so on. So, there is a very close relationship between Islam, Judaism and Christianity and a great scope for mutual understanding and learning. Christians especially are potentially closer to the Muslims â€Å"because amongst these are me n devoted to learning and men who have renounced the world and they are not arrogant†. (5:85) The true concept of jihad in Islam is a comprehensive and constant ‘struggle’, ‘effort’ or ‘striving’ on an individual level and against one’s ego (nafs). Its justification or purpose is purification of the soul In a limited sense and as popularly perceived in the West, it also means a collective ‘holy war’ against others especially infidels. It is therefore a collective obligation (fard al-kifayah) under certain circumstances. It should also be pointed out that jihad in this manner has certain conditions that must be met, also that the drive to engage in warfare is overridden by some conditions too. For example, in Surah Tauba (9:5-6) it appears that muslims are being enjoined to fight but this must cease if for instance, those who are being fought convert to Islam, observe prayer, or seek asylum and pay the